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 CONTENTS
Dry stone walls are an integral part of the Cumbrian fells
and dales - dividing the landscape into a patchwork of irregular
fields, and making inroads up the valley sides to encircle
chunks of fell land. Stone walls occur wherever there is a
ready supply of natural rock or stone, and where climatic
conditions prohibit the planting of hedges. They are called
'dry stone' because they are built without the use of mortar
to bind the stones together, relying instead on a tightly
interlocking structure.
Most dry stone walls in Cumbria were built between 1730 and
1850, although some are much earlier. By the early 18th century,
most farmsteads and hamlets were surrounded by small irregular
fields (in-bye land) enclosed by walls. These walls were generally
built of locally found stone (river cobbles and glacial debris).
As demand for food increased, more marginal land was brought
into use. Thus, the lower valley sides became enclosed and
converted to pasture. These new intake fields were generally
more regular in shape than the earlier in-bye fields, and
used locally quarried stone in contrast to the earlier walls
that used river cobbles and glacial debris.
Although the valley floors and lower fellsides were the first
to be enclosed, much of the higher ground remained as open
common. The General Enclosure Act of 1801 allowed rights to
the common to be extinguished and the land divided among local
farmers. By the end of the 19th century, the enclosure movement
had parcelled off a large amount of common land (though much
still remains) and Cumbria's landscape took on its familiar
walled mantle.
Responsibility for maintenance of walls lay with landowners,
with the work being done by farm workers. However, by the
1950s, changes in agriculture meant there were fewer labourers
on the land; consequently, walls became neglected and many
fell into disuse. It was not until the 1980s that dry stone
walls were recognised as assets to the environmental and cultural
heritage of an area. Today, dry stone walling is a recognised
artisan skill with training courses and qualifications.
The wall walks the fell
Grey millipede on slow stone hooves
Its slack back hollowed
At gulleys and grooves
Or shouldering over
Old boulders
Too big to be rolled away
Norman Nicholson, 1981
WHY BUILD WALLS?
 Walls
are a practical way of providing field boundaries and have
other functions as well. Although costly to build, they last
for decades and prove more economical than fences in the long
term. In brief, dry stone walls were constructed:
- to divide fields
- to stop livestock from straying
- to help drive sheep down the fells and into sheep pens
(outgangs or outrakes).
- as a means of clearing the land of rocks and boulders
(clearance walls)
- and (indirectly) to provide shelter for livestock on the
leeward side of walls.
Most walls were built by gangs of itinerant professional
wallers and dykers, who roamed the countryside seeking paid
work. It was hard, back-breaking work. Wallers working on
the fellside would live in temporary shelters for weeks at
a time. Once the walls had been built, responsibility for
their maintenance lay with the farmer or landowner, with schedules
stating who should maintain which sections of wall.
WALL CONSTRUCTION
All dry stone walls are carefully constructed so that the
weight of the wall is transferred down through the courses
to the large foundation or 'footing' stones. The footings
are (ideally) large square-shaped boulders that are laid in
two parallel lines within a shallow trench up to 1 metre (3
feet) wide. However, in Borrowdale, Wasdale, Langdale and
parts of the Duddon Valley, the footings are often huge irregular
boulders incorporated into the walls as clearance stones.
Once the footings are in place, the space between the two
rows is packed with small stones and rock fragments called
'hearting'.
Stone courses are then laid on top of the foundation stones,
each stone being placed so that it overlies the joint between
two stones on the lower course. When a few courses have been
laid, the space between the rows is filled with hearting.
Each stone is carefully placed to allow rainwater to drain
off the walls.
After a few courses have been built in this manner, a number
of large stones are laid across the coursed stones to hold
the two faces together (known as 'through stones'). Depending
on the height of the wall, there may be several lines of 'through
stones'. More courses are then laid on top, gradually tapering
inwards as height is gained, so that the wall is narrower
at the top than at the base. The tapering effect (or 'batter')
helps to ensure the wall's stability. Finally, the wall is
finished with a row of cams or coping stones. These can be
thinner stones stacked end on and leaning at the same angle,
alternating upright and horizontal cams (called 'cocks' and
'hens') or rounded cobbles.
Walls on gradients are more of a problem. The stone courses
are still laid horizontally, but in a stepwise fashion following
the slope of the ground. This reduces the tendency of the
wall to slip downhill.
CUMBRIAN WALL TYPES
Walls generally incorporate locally available material and
thus reflect the underlying geology of the region. The style
and finish of the wall is determined by the physical properties
of the rock that it is made of. Rock that is easily split
(such as sandstone or limestone) produces a neater finish
than walls made of cobbles and other 'found' materials. In
Cumbria, six different types of wall have been identified:
1. Slate walls
Walls built from thin, angular pieces of slate are found in
the northern part of the Lake District (Skiddaw rocks) and
in south Cumbria (Windermere slates).
2. Walls made of Borrowdale Volcanic material
The central area of the Lake District is composed of volcanic
rocks, which have given rise to massively thick and rugged
walls. These walls often utilise glacial debris from land
clearance and incorporate huge boulders at the base. Pieces
of slate were often interleaved with river cobbles to give
a level finish for the next course of stones.
3. Brathay upright slate walls
The Brathay flags are more resistant slates and can be laid
vertically, creating an upright line of slabs. Each slate
is chamfered to enable it to interlock with its neighbour.
Good examples of upright slate walls can be seen at Coniston,
Hawkshead, Langdale valleys and Ambleside.
4. Stone and turf walls (kests)
These walls, sometimes known as Cumberland banks, were built
using rounded cobbles embedded on alternating layers of turf.
In this way, a low bank was built up that often has a hedge
planted on top. Commonly found near the coast in west Cumbria.
5. Sandstone walls
As sandstone contains bedding planes, the rocks can be split
easily into more uniform sizes with regular edges, giving
a neat appearance to walls. Sandstone walls are found in the
Eden valley and around St Bees in West Cumbria.
6. Limestone walls
As with sandstone, limestone can be readily cleaved into regular
blocks of stone. Limestone walls are a feature of the Orton
fells, as well as parts of south Lakeland, and around Shap
and Stainton (near Penrith).
Please
click here for a map detailing the different Cumbrian wall
types
(230kb).
FEATURES OF WALLS
Hogg Holes
Square holes in the base of walls supported by an overlying
lintel. These were just high enough to allow young sheep (or
hoggs) to pass through to graze on fresh grass, whilst restricting
the older sheep. Hogg holes could be closed off by rolling
a large stone in front of the gap.
Stiles
Various methods have been adopted to allow passage through
or over a wall. The most familiar is the step stile, but the
squeeze stile is also commonly found.
Smoots
A small hole in the base of a wall to allow rabbits, hares
and badgers to pass through rather than dig under the wall.
Water smoots occur where a wall crosses over a small stream.
A large lintel usually bridges the gap, with horizontal slabs
placed across to prevent livestock from straying and to protect
the walls from damage during flooding.
Bee boles
Square recesses built into south or east facing walls to accommodate
skeps (straw bee hives). Cumbria has the largest number of
surviving stone bee boles in the country. For further information,
see 'A Taste of Honey' in the same series.
SHEEP FOLDS AND PIN FOLDS
Sheep folds are small enclosures that are found all over
Cumbria. They were used to provide shelter for sheep during
severe weather and to gather sheep in one place prior to dipping,
sorting, treating, etc.
Pin folds were used for the collection of stray sheep and
are generally found within villages, so that the sheep can
be readily identified and collected by their owners. A good
example of an intact pinfold is at Crosby Garrett.
Andy Goldsworthy was recently commissioned to recreate a
series of sheepfolds and pinfolds as an expression of Cumbria's
cultural landscape. All the folds contain sculptural elements
that reflect facets of the local landscape. A leaflet on the
project (giving locations of the folds) can be found at most
Tourist Information Centres.
WALLS AS WILDLIFE HABITATS
The countless nooks and crannies of dry stone walls provide
niche habitats for many organisms. Within the wall there are
micro-climatic differences between the exposed top and the
sheltered base and between one side and the other.
Lichens favour the exposed faces of walls in pollution-free
air and form a mosaic of colourful patches. Mosses, ferns
and liverworts prefer shadier situations with more moisture.
Stonecrops and saxifrages enjoy the warmer and drier conditions
on the tops of walls, whilst foxgloves proliferate in the
damper conditions at the base.
Walls are a haven for invertebrate life: small gaps are utilised
by spiders for spinning their webs; woodlice and millipedes
bury into the dark recesses; and solitary bees and wasps find
ideal homes for overwintering. One recently constructed wall
near Cockermouth has incorporated a lacewing house to encourage
healthy populations as a predatory control on greenfly. Snails
can also be found in abundance on walls, particularly those
built of limestone.
Frogs and toads appreciate the cool, damp interiors of dry
stone walls, and many bird species (wrens, wagtails, wheatears,
stonechats, robins, redstarts, rock pipits, little owls) use
crevices in walls as nesting places and to find food.
Walls not only harbour small mammals such as voles, shrews,
field mice and hedgehogs, but also act as 'wildlife corridors'
for larger animals such as rabbits, stoats, badgers and foxes.
FURTHER INFORMATION
 Dry
Stone Walling Association of Great Britain (DSWA)
Westmorland County Showground
Lane Farm
Crooklands
Milnthorpe
Cumbria
LA7 7NH
Tel: 015395 67953
Email: information@dswa.org.uk
Website: www.dswa.org.uk
Founded in 1968 to promote the traditional craft of dry stone
walling. The national body is based at Crooklands, near Kendal,
but local branches can be found all over the country. The
Association runs training courses and demonstrations and offers
a nationally accredited Craftsman Certification Scheme. The
DSWA also provides an information service and sales of publications
and equipment.
An exhibition wall, approximately 100 m long, is currently
under construction at Crooklands. This will demonstrate the
variety of walling materials and styles found in different
parts of the country.
Cumbria Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group (FWAG)
Anderson Court
 Sullart
Street
Cockermouth
Cumbria
LA13 0EB
Tel: 01900 828684
Email: cumbria@fwag.org.uk
Website: www.fwag.org.uk
FWAG provides advice on how to successfully integrate farming
management practices with benefits for wildlife and conservation.
A team of Farm Conservation Advisers can provide help with
the environmental management of woodlands, hedgerows, field
boundaries, wetland areas, grasslands and heaths, and give
advice on grant opportunities.
Ruskin Museum
Yewdale Road
Coniston
Cumbria
LA21 8DU
Tel: 015394 41164
Email: vmj@ruskinmuseum.com
Website: www.ruskinmuseum.com
A demonstration wall by Andrew Loudon shows the different
techniques and features associated with dry stone walls, including
two types of hogg hole, a step stile and a squeeze stile,
a rabbit smoot and a bee bole.
GETTING AROUND
For details on public transport, please contact Traveline
on 08700 608 2608.
Email: info@traveline-cumbria.co.uk.
Website: www.traveline.org.uk.
CREDITS
Produced by Anna Gray at Voluntary Action Cumbria for LEADER+
(Cumbria Fells & Dales)
Designed by Andrew Lathwell Design Ltd.
Illustrated by Juliet Whitworth
Printed by Reeds of Penrith, 2005.
Front cover photograph by Anna Gray.
Other photographs supplied by Val Corbett, Peter Koronka,
Keith Wood, Brian Sherwen, Steve Reeve, Jane Martindale, Cumbria
Wildlife Trust.
LEADER+ (Cumbria Fells & Dales)
The Old Stables,
Redhills,
Penrith,
Cumbria,
CA11 0DT
Tel: 01768 869533
Email: info@fellsanddales.org.uk
Website: www.fellsanddales.org.uk
Fells and Dales LEADER+ Programme is based at Voluntary Action
Cumbria, a company limited by guarantee, Charity No. 1080875,
Companyh No. 3957858.
This is one of a series of themed trails being produced
by LEADER+ (Cumbria Fells & Dales) to promote the area
and its local products.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that the content
of this trail is accurate and up to date at the time of writing,
no liability can be accepted for any errors, omissions or
misrepresentations of fact contained herein.
 
This project is being part financed by the European Agriculture
Guidance adn Guarantee Fund of the European Union and the
Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs through
the Cumbria Fells and Dales LEADER+ Programme.
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