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CONTENTS
 For
centuries, England's wealth was based on wool, first exported
as raw fleece to Europe and later traded as woven cloth. Cumbria,
being primarily a sheep-rearing area, also enjoyed the fruits
of this trade with vast numbers of people engaged in the various
processes that turn wool into cloth. The focus of this widespread
industry was Kendal, which became the regional centre for
the processing and marketing of woollen products.
There are only a few remnants left of the woollen industry
- a few mills, the odd spinning gallery and inn sign - but
the value of wool as a useful commodity remains. Today, a
growing number of local craftspeople combine traditional skills
and modern techniques to produce an impressive array of attractive
and functional woollen crafts.
WHAT IS WOOL?
 Wool
is a remarkable renewable resource produced by sheep. It is
made of keratin - the same substance as hair, horn, hooves
and our fingernails. However, under a microscope hair is seen
to have a smooth surface, while wool has scales. It is these
scales which enable wool fibres to cling together and be turned
into textiles.
Wool is:
- an excellent insulator (as air is held between the fibres)
- lightweight and 'breathable'
- able to wick away moisture and shed dirt
- able to absorb up to 25% of its weight in moisture without
feeling wet
- naturally fire-retardant
- hardwearing and resilient
WOOL QUALITY
In Britain, wool quality is measured by the 'Bradford Count':
the higher the number, the finer the wool. Most British wool
is in the mid-range, but wool from the local breeds of Herdwick,
Rough Fell and Swaledale sheep is low graded because of its
coarseness. Although the wool is unsuitable for fine fabrics,
it is excellent for carpets.
Variations in the length of fibre, crimp ('springiness')
and lustre in different wools make for great variety in quality
and texture of the finished product.
TURNING WOOL INTO FABRIC
Felting
Felt is the world's oldest fabric. When moisture, heat and
friction are applied to sheared fleece, a strong fabric is
created that can be used for shelter, clothing and footwear.
Today, felt is generally used to create effective works of
art.
Preparation of wool
To form a yarn, the raw fleece had to be scoured to remove
the natural oils (lanolin) in the wool. Urine was often used
to do this because it contains ammonia that breaks down the
grease. Once the oils and other impurities were removed, the
wool could be dyed at this stage. Then, depending on what
finish was required, the wool was either carded (to produce
woollen yarn) or combed (for worsted yarn). This made it easier
to spin the fibres together into a strong yarn.
 
Spinning
Yarn was first spun using a spindle-whorl. The whorls were
small round objects made from stone, lead or pottery, fixed
to a wooden rod (the spindle). When the spindle is twirled
by hand, the whorl acts as a fly-wheel, twisting the fibres
together.
The introduction of the spinning wheel in the medieval period
greatly speeded up yarn production in the home.
Weaving
Once the yarn had been prepared, it could be woven into fabric
or cloth. Two sets of yarn are required: the warp and the
weft. First, the warp is arranged on a loom in parallel lines,
then the weft is taken in and out of the warp using a shuttle.
As the layers build up, the weft is 'beaten down' (pushed
together) to create the fabric.
Dyeing
Wool may be used in its natural colours or it can be dyed.
Until the introduction of acid dyes in the 19th century, natural
sources (mainly plants) were used. Wool is prepared for vegetable
dyeing by being treated with a mordant (e.g. alum, copper),
which makes it receptive to the pigment.
| Cloth that was dyed
before weaving kept its colour better than cloth that
was dyed afterwards. Hence the origin of the phrase 'dyed
in the wool', meaning 'through and through'. |
Fulling
This was the process of pounding the cloth to tighten up
the fibres and create a denser fabric. The cloths were immersed
in hot soapy water and trampled on (known as 'walking'). This
arduous process was soon mechanised by harnessing the energy
of fast-flowing streams. Mills were built to house huge water-powered
hammers (known as stocks) that repeatedly pounded the cloth
to soften it. There were fulling mills (or walk mills) all
over Cumbria: recorded mills existed at Ambleside, Staveley,
Beetham, Crosthwaite (Lyth Valley) and Milnthorpe.
Fulling mills were often located near sources of bracken.
When green bracken was burned in a kiln, it produced potash.
This was then mixed with animal fat and lime to make a soap
that was used in the fulling process.
Stretching
After being fulled, the cloth was rinsed and then taken to
nearby tenter grounds to be stretched and dried. The lengths
of cloth were attached to hooks on the frames and left to
dry. Rows of these tenterframes can be clearly seen on contemporary
maps, engravings and paintings of the period.
| The phrase 'to be
on tenterhooks' means to feel tense, in the same way the
cloth on the tenterframe was being stretched under tension. |
Knitting
In contrast to weaving, a knitted fabric is created from
one continuous thread by forming a series of loops (a row
of stitches) on two or more needles. By using several coloured
yarns and different permutations of stitches, a vast array
of elaborate designs can be achieved.
THE WOOLLEN INDUSTRY OF CUMBRIA
In the early medieval period, much of the land was granted
to monasteries (Furness, Shap, Holm Cultram) which grew rich
on wool sales. Furness Abbey was the largest landowner in
the area and one of the richest in the country. Their main
estate (or grange) was at Hawkshead, which provided the Abbey
with almost half of its wool and over a quarter of its income.
The manufacture of woollen cloth, woven on handlooms in cottages
and farmhouses, was widespread and all members of the family
were involved in making 'pieces' of cloth. Children would
card the wool, women spun the wool into yarn and men would
weave the 'pieces'. Much of it was hard, physical labour,
but it gave rural families much needed extra income. The so-called
'spinning galleries' attached to many farmsteads in Cumbria
are where fleeces were stored, prepared, dyed and spun, and
where woven 'pieces' could be displayed for the attention
of passing wool merchants.
Monks initially controlled the wool trade. They collected
the spun yarn and the woven cloth from the workers, and absorbed
the profits. However, with the Dissolution of the Monasteries
in 1537 the wool trade was taken over by a new social class
- the wool merchants who, with their broggers (or agents),
now organised the delivery of raw materials to the peasant
workers and collection of the finished 'pieces'.
There were no roads or wheeled vehicles to transport the
finished cloths, so packhorses were used instead. Loaded with
wool sacks they would regularly plod the old routes linking
the central Lakeland valleys to the main market centres. In
the mid-18th century, between 6 and 20 packhorses travelled
between Hawkshead and Kendal every week.
| The colour of Kendal Green was created
by first steeping the cloth in a yellow dye ( from Genista
tinctoria or dyer's greenweed) and then overdyeing it
in blue ( from woad or indigo) to produce the celebrated
green. |
 Kendal
became the main centre for the processing and marketing of
woollen cloth, particularly the hardwearing Kendal 'cottons'.
The town attracted a range of skilled artisans: shearmen who
brushed the nap with teasels and then cropped it for an even
finish, dyers who created the familiar Kendal Green, and numerous
tailors and weavers. In 1695, over half of the main householders
were working in the textile trade.
Some wool was left in its natural state, creating a coarse,
grey cloth called 'hodden' that was worn by working people
and the legendary Cumbrian huntsman, John Peel (1776-1854),
who wore his 'coat so grey'. Kendal was also known for its
'linseys' (a mix of flax and wool), 'woolseys' (a mix of wool
and cotton), 'kerseys' (fabric made of longer woollen fibres)
and 'harden' (a coarse cloth made of hemp or flax).
 Kendal's
coat of arms displays wool hooks quartered with teasels:
the wool hooks secured the packhorse bales, and the teasels
raised the nap (fluffed up the fibres) of newly woven
cloth. Others believe the 'teasels' to be spindles onto
which the woollen yarn was spun. |
 Once
finished, the cloths were loaded onto packhorses and taken
to London and Southampton every week. Much Kendal cloth was
shipped over to the West Indies and the North American colonies
to clothe slaves working on the plantations. In 1770, 120
pieces of Kendal cotton went to Barbados, 80 to Domingo (Dominica),
810 to Jamaica and no less than 2,693 to Virginia. The return
cargo of tobacco created another important Kendal industry
- snuff manufacture.
A middle class of merchants and clothiers (known as chapmen)
profiteered from the flourishing woollen trade, and Kendal's
motto 'Pannus Mihi Panis' ('cloth is my bread') and coat of
arms reflected this prosperity. This was the era which saw
the construction and enlargement of small manor houses (statesmen
dwellings), churches, schools and other public buildings,
all built on the proceeds of cloth manufacture.
Many of Cumbria's place names are indicative of this widespread
industry - Tenter Hill near Hawkshead, Tenterfell near Kendal
and Tenter's Lane at Lorton are all places where cloths were
once stretched ('tented') on wooden frames. Many inn signs
also allude to the woollen industry: there are Woolpack Inns
in Eskdale and Penrith (and formerly in Kendal); Packhorse
Inns in Keswick and Kendal; a Fleece Inn at Kendal; and, from
a previous era, the Bishop Blaize in Kendal - named after
the patron saint of woolcombers but more recently renamed
as the Kendal Bowman. These pubs were often on packhorse or
coaching routes and provided an overnight rest for the workers
and their horses.
'This town [Kendal] is of great trade
and resort … for the diligent and industrious practice
of making cloath [sic], so excels the rest … through
all the parts of England.'
John Speed, c. 1614 |
Local surnames such as Bowker (cloth washer), Webster (weaver),
Walker (fuller), Lister (dyer), Cropper (shearman) and Chapman
(wool merchant) are all occupational names derived from the
medieval woollen industry.
| During the 17th century the woollen
industry suffered a period of decline. In an attempt to
revive the trade, Parliament passed a law which decreed
that all burials must be in woollen shrouds. Churches
had to issue a certificate each time there was a burial,
declaring that the corpse had been 'buried in woollen'.
One of these certificates is on display in Hawkshead Church.
The nearby Information Centre has a replica of a woollen
shrouded corpse in a burial pit. |
 The
manufacture of knitted woollen stockings (hosiery) was also
an important cottage industry, providing a livelihood for
thousands of people, particularly in the Lune Valley, Garsdale
and Dentdale (Dent was noted for its 'terrible knitters',
who would knit furiously all day long). Yarn was given out
by hosiers on a regular basis who also collected the finished
stockings made in the intervening period.
Whole families were engaged in the production of knitted
hose, knitting at all times of the day or evening - whether
on the way to market or in social groups around the fire (known
as 'ganging a sitting').
|
'All this time their knitting goes
on with unremitting speed. They sit rocking to and fro
like so many weird wizards. They burn no candle, but
knit by the light of the peat fire.'
The Rural Life of England,
William Howitt, 1844
|
Kendal, Kirkby Stephen and Kirkby Lonsdale became the market
centres for hundreds of stockings, as well as knitted gloves,
caps and 'guernsey frocks' (sweaters), which were sent off
to London and Europe. In 1801 it was estimated that 2400 pairs
of stockings a week were made in Ravenstonedale, Orton, Sedbergh
and Dent - an average of one pair per person per week. Long
hours were worked for little pay, but it was enough to keep
many families from destitution.
 By
the late-18th century, England was in the process of revolutionary
change in farming, transport and industry. Mechanised factory
production took over to provide for the nation's needs and
the growing export market. This was the era of the textile
mills, newly established in the main towns of Kendal, Cockermouth
and Keswick. The mills centralised the processing and manufacture
of woollen goods, and the old cottage industries of spinning,
weaving and knitting became obsolete.
From the 1930s onwards, new overseas markets and development
of artificial fibres reduced the competitiveness of Cumbria's
textile mills and gradually most closed down or found alternative
uses.
|
Farfield Mill, near Sedbergh, was built by the Dover
family in 1837 as a water-powered textile mill and produced
an array of textile products from horse collar linings
to miners' garments. Yarn was regularly supplied to
hand-knitters in the Dales and knitted items brought
back. The mill continued to produce woollen textiles
up to its closure in 1992, and became an Arts and Heritage
Centre in 2001.
|
Knitting sheath. Curved wooden tool used by hand-knitters
and worn in a leather belt. A hole in the top held the needle
rigid, freeing the right hand to form the loops and thus speeding
up the process.
WOOLLEN CRAFT PRODUCERS
In recent years there has been a revival of locally produced
woollen crafts in response to the low wool prices of the late
1990s. Plummeting wool prices encouraged sheep farmers and
craftspeople to find new ways of increasing the value of local
wool by turning it into an array of colourful and imaginative
products.
Debbie Lucas creates felt artwork from hand-dyed merino
and blue-faced Leicester wool, and runs several felt-making
workshops every year (www.debbielucas.co.uk).
Jane Exley of The Woolly Rug Company in Elterwater
produces hand-tufted rugs, runners and wall hangings using
Herdwick wool and can be seen at work in her studio (www.woollyrug.com).
Lakeland Tweed comprises a selection of rugs, throws
and blankets made of wool from Cumbrian fell sheep. The farm
at Pike Side, near Ulpha, has a farm trail and information
on the processing of wool from fleece to product (www.duddonvalleywool.co.uk).
Nancy Tingey uses local wools to create pieces of art
and has an open studio at Isel Hall, Cockermouth, on Mondays
during the summer (email: nancy@tingey7.freeserve.co.uk).
Local knitters still make hand-knitted garments using local
wool - see the Wool Clip for details. Sophie's Wild
Woollens of Dent continues the tradition of handing out
yarn to local knitters and collecting the finished garments
(tel: 015396 25323).
The National Trust, in conjunction with its hill farms, has
recently developed a scheme with Goodacre Carpets of
Kendal to produce carpets from Herdwick wool (www.goodacrecarpets.com).
Another successful venture, Second Nature, uses Herdwick
wool as insulation material for buildings and cool boxes (www.secondnatureuk.com).
Some woollen craft producers have banded together to market
their skills and products within a co-operative. The Wool
Clip and Original Cumbrian Wool are two such ventures.
THE WOOL CLIP
Priest's Mill, Caldbeck, Wigton, Cumbria, CA7 8DR
Tel: 016974 78707
Website: www.woolclip.com
A co-operative of around 15 members, based in an 18th-century
former corn mill. A wool craft shop sells hand-spun yarn),
knitwear, woven and felt goods, rugs, throws, hangings, hats,
bags, gloves, scarves, socks, etc. A catalogue and mail order
service is available on request. The co-operative runs monthly
workshops in textile skills. Shop is open Tues-Sat (11.00-
4.00) from mid February to end of December. Members include:
- Marion Barritt. Hand-weaver, spinner, dyer. Teaches
textile skills.
- Mary Bell and Pam Hall (Helvellyn Herdwicks). Knitting
yarns and kits, woven rugs and throws. Farm visits arranged.
- Betty Brame and Ruth Strong. Hand-knitters and
spinners using wool from local breeds.
- Christine Crofts. Gun-tufted rugs and wall hangings.
Talks and demonstrations.
- Rachel Erwig (Knitwits). Original designs of children's
knitwear.
- Lee Fitton. Felt artist.
- June Hall. Hooked rug maker. Talks and demonstrations.
- Jan Hicks. Felt artist and dyer. Talks and demonstrations.
- Julia Neubauer. Knitwear designer and maker.
- Jenny McWilliam. Herdwick waistcoats.
- Carolyn Rawlinson (The Spinning Gallery). Hand-knitter,
spinner and dyer. Talks and demonstrations.
- Therese Southgate (Jopplety How Designs). Co-author
of 'Herdwick Country Cookbook: Heritage Walks and Recipes'.
Talks and demonstrations.
- Carolyn Webb (Indigo). Knitwear designer and maker
using local wool.
ORIGINAL CUMBRIAN WOOL
Old Hall Farm, Ulpha, Broughton-in-Furness, Cumbria, LA20
6EY
Tel/Fax: 01229 716440 (Michaela) or 01229 716613 (Anthea)
Email: cumbrianwool@aol.com.
Website: www.cumbrianwool.co.uk
A co-operative formed by a group of sheep farming families
in the Duddon Valley (Anthea Jones, Jeremy and Sue McWilliam,
David and Michaela Hoggarth, and David Thornley). Together
they farm around 4000 sheep and increase the value of their
wool by 'shepherding' its processing and transformation into
attractive rugs and throws, and a range of upholstery and
furnishing fabrics. Talks given to local groups.
SHOWS AND EVENTS
Throughout the summer, various agricultural events showcase
the best of Cumbria's sheep and woollen products. For more
information contact Made in Cumbria - see Useful Contacts.
LAKELAND SHEARS
An annual competition (held in Cockermouth in early July)
that attracts shearers from all over the world. This is the
only shearing event to use solely Herdwick sheep - over 1000
during the event. Contact Bob Shaw for details (tel: 01768
890421).
WOOLFEST
An annual celebration of wool and other animal fibres held
in Cockermouth on the last weekend in June. Fleeces, equipment
suppliers, designers, makers, livestock, lectures, workshops,
exhibitions and demonstrations. Organised by the Wool Clip
- www.woolclip.com.
KNITTING CAFÉ
Bluebell Bookshop, Angel Lane, Penrith, Cumbria, CA11 7BT.
Cumbria's first knitting café - free drop-in centre
for knitters to share ideas, patterns, techniques and to socialise.
Every Monday from 10.00-1.00. Enquiries: June Hall (tel: 01768
480286).
WHERE TO FIND MORE INFORMATION
MUSEUM OF LAKELAND LIFE
Abbot Hall, Kendal, Cumbria, LA9 5AL
Tel: 01539 722464
Email: info@lakelandmuseum.org.uk
Website: www.lakelandmuseum.org.uk
Information and displays on sheep farming and woollen textile
manufacture - wool combs, carding bats, carved wooden yardsticks
for measuring cloth, spinning wheels, an original loom for
weaving cloth, and even a cast-iron tenterframe! The shop
sells a selection of woollen crafts - rugs, throws, garments,
etc - all made of local wool. Educational workshops run. Open
Mon-Sat all year except for Xmas period (mid Dec-mid Jan).
Admission charge.
FARFIELD MILL
Garsdale Road, Sedbergh, Cumbria, LA10 5LW
Tel: 015396 21958
Email: themanager@farfieldmill.org.
Website: www.farfieldmill.org
Arts and Heritage Centre in former woollen mill complex. The
centre has displays on the mill's history, workers and products,
as well as on the Rough Fell sheep breed. The original Dobcross
looms still weave colourful travel rugs and throws in wool.
One initiative uses wool from Rough Fell sheep to create attractive
woven floor rugs. Craftspeople can be seen at work including
knitter Angela Bradley (015396 20922), and weavers Zara Clarke
(zara@zaraclarke.co.uk) and Laura Rosenzweig (www.laurasloom.co.uk).
Eden Artisans (a group of textile workers and a woodworker)
are also based at the mill. Shop and café on site.
Free parking. Admission charge. Open every day from Easter
to mid January (10.30-5.00); rest of year, at weekends only.
DENT HERITAGE CENTRE
Dent, Cumbria, LA10 5QJ
Tel: 015396 25800
Website: www.dentvillageheritagecentre.co.uk
Displays, artefacts and memorabilia tell the story of Dentdale
from its past to the present day. A section is devoted to
the knitting industry of the area, alongside other information
on farming, mining, railway engineering, natural history and
cultural life. The centre is open all year round.
Adjacent to the church is the DENTDALE CENTRE, which has
information on the 'terrible knitters of Dent'.
LAKELAND SHEEP AND WOOL CENTRE
Cockermouth, Cumbria, CA13 0QX
Tel/Fax: 01900 822673.
Email: reception@sheep-woolcentre.co.uk.
Website: www.sheep-woolcentre.co.uk
Displays of local heritage and attractions. Several British
sheep breeds are presented on stage with commentary on their
characteristics. Sheepdog demonstrations. Shop with woollen
goods, sheepskins and other 'sheepy' gifts. Open Sun-Thu from
March to end of October. Admission charge for sheep show.
GUILDS
The Eden Valley Guild of Weavers, Spinners and Dyers
Secretary: Marion Barritt. Tel: 01768 892667.
Lancashire and Lakes Guild of Spinners, Weavers and Dyers
Secretary: Alison Ongley, 125 Bare Lane, Morecambe, Lancashire,
LA4 6RP
International Association of Feltmakers
Chairman: Sonja Middleton, 53 Aireville Avenue, Bradford,
BD9 4EW
Tel: 01274 581311
USEFUL CONTACTS
The British Wool Marketing Board
Wool House, Roydsdale Way, Euroway Trading Estate, Bradford,
West Yorkshire, BD4 6SE
Tel: 01274 688666
The buyer of all wool from British farms. Supplies fleeces
and prepared wool for spinning. Information, publications,
educational material, etc.
Made in Cumbria
County Offices, Busher Walk, Kendal, Cumbria, LA9 4RQ
Tel: 01539 732736
Email: office@madeincumbria.co.uk
Website: www.madeincumbria.co.uk
Supports local art and craft producers.
The National Trust
The Hollens, Grasmere, Ambleside, Cumbria, LA22 9BR
Tel: 015394 35599
Website: www.nationaltrust.org.uk
Information on Herdwick wool carpets.
GETTING AROUND
For details on public transport, please contact Traveline
on 08700 608 2608.
Email: info@traveline-cumbria.co.uk.
Website: www.traveline.org.uk.
CREDITS
Produced by Anna Gray at VAC for LEADER+
Written by June Hall and Anna Gray
Design © Andrew Lathwell Design Limited
Illustrated by Juliet Whitworth
Printed by Reeds Printers, 2005
Front cover photographs supplied by Ted Bowness, The Wool
Clip and Original Cumbrian Wool
Other images supplied by Kendal Library, Kendal Museum of
Lakeland Life, Farfield Mill, National Museums of Scotland,
Yorkshire Archaeological Society, Wool Clip, Original Cumbrian
Wool, Debbie Lucas, Marion Barritt, Carolyn Webb, Therese
Southgate and Ted Bowness.
LEADER+ (Cumbria Fells & Dales)
The Old Stables,
Redhills,
Penrith,
Cumbria,
CA11 0DT
Tel: 01768 869533
Email: info@fellsanddales.org.uk
Website: www.fellsanddales.org.uk
Fells and Dales LEADER+ Programme is based at Voluntary Action
Cumbria, a company limited by guarantee, Charity No. 1080875,
Companyh No. 3957858.
This is one of a series of themed trails being produced
by LEADER+ (Cumbria Fells & Dales) to promote the area
and its local products.
Whilst every effort has been made to ensure that the content
of this trail is accurate and up to date at the time of writing,
no liability can be accepted for any errors, omissions or
misrepresentations of fact contained herein.
 
This project is being part financed by the European Agriculture
Guidance and Guarantee Fund of the European Union and the
Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs through
the Cumbria Fells and Dales LEADER+ Programme.
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